7 form The Climate.

1. Climate is the weather a certain place has over a long period of time.
2. Climate has a very important influence on plants, animals and humans.
3. It is different in different parts of the world.
4. Russia is the largest country in the world.
5. It lies on a huge territory.
6. Its climate in the north, south, east and west is different.
7. In the west the climate is usually mild and wet.
8. The coldest place on the planet is in the North of Siberia.
9. The south of Russia is hot with a lot of sunshine.
10. Summer and winter temperatures are very different.
11. The climate has recently changed a lot in our country.
12. Some scientists think the world is becoming hotter.
13. Winters have become warmer.
14. Many people think it is because of the greenhouse effect.
15. Sunlight gives us heat.
16. Some of the heat warms the atmosphere, and some of the heat goes back into space.
17. The earth has become much warmer because the heat can't go back into space.
18. That's why winter and summer temperatures in many places have become higher.
19. During the last 100 years people have produced a lot of carbon dioxide.
20. It works like glass in a greenhouse.
21. It lets heat get in, but it doesn't let much heat get out.
22. So the atmosphere becomes warmer.
23. People and animals breathe in oxygen, and breathe out carbon dioxide.
24. Trees take this gas from air, and produce oxygen.
25. But in the last years, people have cut down and burnt rainforests.
26. The climate changes a little from year to year.
27. These changes can be dangerous for our fragile planet.
28. Our planet needs protection.
29. We know many secrets of our planet.
30. Yet there is still much to learn.

7, 8 form Tenses

'I haven't seen Mark for weeks.' ' Well, I .....him this afternoon. Why don't you come along?'

meet

am meeting

have met 

 I ...... the floor for half an hour.

polished

will polish

have been polishing 

 'We'd better take a taxi to the station' ' Yes, the train..... in 15 minutes'

wiil have left

leaves

has left 

 'I ...... about buying a new car recently.' 'Really? What sort of car?'

thought

have thought

have been thinking 

 'Where is the newspaper?' 'I threw it away. I thought you.....reading it.'

have finished

had finished

finished 

 'I feel very tired.' 'How can you be tired? You .....a thing all day.'

haven't done

haven't been doing

aren't doing 

 'Cathy doesn't study enough.' 'I know. I'm afraid she.... her exam.'

won't be passing

won't pass

won't have passed 

 'There's someone here to see you.' 'Oh, that .... my sister. Send her in.'

was

will be

will have been 

 'Whose is this earring?' 'I don't know. I found it when I....the house.'

had cleaned

was cleaning

am cleaning 

 'I.... to reach Jane on the phone all day.' 'Don't you know? She's gone on holiday.'

tried

have tried

have been trying 

  'I want to visit Katie.' 'Well, don't visit her before five o'clock. She....'

is working

will have worked

will be working 

 'That.....like Dad's car.' 'It is. He must have finished work early.'

sounds

had sounded

has sounded 

  'Is that a new jumper?' 'No. I.....it from Laura yesterday.'

borrowed

had borrowed

have borrowed 

 '.....to the library today?' 'Yes. Would you like me to return your books?'

Will you have gone

Will you be going

Will you have been going 

        'How is your grandfather?' 'His condition.....day by day.'

is improving

improves

has improved

8 form Linking Words. Слова- связки.

Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences, so that people can follow your ideas.

Giving examples

 

For example
For instance
Namely
The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.
Namely refers to something by name.
"There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."

Adding information

And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Apart from
In addition to
Besides
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and.
"We discussed training, education and the budget."
Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."
You can use also with not only to give emphasis.
"We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."
We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this…
As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence.
"As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition."
"We are interested in costs as well as the competition."
Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well.
"They were concerned too."
"I, too, was concerned."
Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to.
"Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
"Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.
"Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition."

Summarising

In short
In brief
In summary
To summarise
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion
We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or
written.

Sequencing ideas

The former, … the latter
Firstly, secondly, finally
The first point is
Lastly
The following
The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.
"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term."
Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.
It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.
The following is a good way of starting a list.
"The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."

Giving a reason

Due to / due to the fact that
Owing to / owing to the fact that
Because
Because of
Since
As
Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.
"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."
"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."
If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.
"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."
"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfill all its orders."
Because / because of
Because of is followed by a noun.
"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."
Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because it was raining, the match was postponed."
"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive."
Since / as
Since and as mean because.
"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."
As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

Giving a result

Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
As a result
Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.
"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."
So is more informal.

Contrasting ideas

But
However
Although / even though
Despite / despite the fact that
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
While
Whereas
Unlike
In theory… in practice…
But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.
"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much."
"He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."
Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.
"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts."
"In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."
Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.
"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."
Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.
"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was cold.)
"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."
While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other.
"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."
"Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down."
"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."
In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result.
"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."

8 form Tenses

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1 ............................................. Frank in Toronto?
a) Did you meet b) Have you met c) Were you meeting

2 He had a break after he .....................................
for two hours.
a) was walking b) had been walking c) has walked

3 I ......................................... her for a long time.
a) know b) have known c) have been knowing.

4 We ............................ the windows and the car
on Saturday morning.
a) were cleaning b) cleaned c) have been cleaning

5 I ............................ in York for a week in 1998.
a) worked b) have been working c) have worked

6 I ......................... you in your office with a girl!
Really? We ...................................................... .
a) saw - 've just talked b) 've seen - just talked
c) saw - were just talking

7 form Present Perfect Continuous.